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何新:西方学界虚构原始印欧语伪造雅利安人起源本末

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何新:西方学界虚构原始印欧语以及
伪造雅利安人起源的本末

雅利安Aryan一词源自梵文,意为“高贵”。西方主流世界历史学于17——19世纪建立雅利安人种优越论的学说。

所谓的“雅利安人”,本来是历史上从来没有任何可信的记载(所根据的都是现在见不到也说不清的某些梵文资料)而近乎虚构出来的一个亚洲族群——不知从哪里来,也不知后来向何处去。

据欧美史学界的说法,所谓雅利安人的识别标准,唯一就是根据他们都讲着一种“雅利安的共同母语”。这种雅利安共同母语的另一个“科学”的名称,即所谓“原始印欧语”。

但是问题在于,历史上根本就没有任何史料或证据证明人类中曾经存在这种语言。这种所谓“雅利安语言”或者原始印欧语言,是被16——17世纪欧洲和神圣罗马帝国的教会学者通过所谓比较语言学的方法虚拟以及虚构(即臆造或者伪造出来)的。其中最有名的伪造者即荷兰人马库斯·冯·鲍霍恩Marcus Zuerius von Boxhorn(1612—1653)和德国人弗朗兹·博普主教(Franz Bopp1791——1867)。极为有趣的是,这两个人在崇洋的中国学术界几乎没有人知道。他们可能被西方人刻意地隐匿,因为这样才能把他们的学说伪装成自古有之的客观真理。

何新:从原始印欧语的虚构,到雅利安人种的诡说 - 何新博客管理员 - 何新网易博客
 原始印欧语—所谓雅利安语理论的主要炮制者之一:弗朗兹·博普神父(1791—1867)

而后在18—20世纪,这种虚拟的原始印欧语言就被作为一种历史事实,系统地引入人类学、考古学、历史学,从而虚拟出了一个特殊的古代优秀人类种族——雅利安人种或者民族。于是,人类早期文明的一切卓越成果(包括古巴比伦、埃及、小亚细亚、罗马、波斯、印度和黄河文明),就都被归于这个优越人种的创造物。西方人称,这个雅利安人种乃是希腊、罗马人和现代欧美人的共同祖先。以上就是17世纪以来西方系统伪造的世界性伪史形成的基本脉络。
[此种伪史的最新代表作之一,就是目前名声甚噪的威廉·麦克尼尔William H. McNeill的《世界史:从史前到21世纪全球文明的互动》一书。]

值得注意的是,西方上述伪史的构造基础,既不是建立于体质人类学、遗传人类学之上,也不是建立于考古学和历史文献学等等这种可信的实证科学的基础上;而完全是建立在所谓的比较语言学和虚拟语言学这种形而上学的基础上。西方学界制造伪史的方法就是:先建立一系列可疑的假说,然后把假说转变为信史,再用假说作为直接引证的史料。这种方法,西方人运用已经烂熟,自从文艺复兴以来,他们就一直在借助那个来历不明、时代不明、地缘不明、作者不明的“荷马史诗”,作为构造全部希腊史前伪史的基础。这种伪史,当然是完全不可征信的!

所谓的“原始印欧语”,是在17——19世纪欧洲对亚、非进行殖民的时代,由欧洲语言学家根据所谓的比较语言学的方法而所倒推、猜想而虚构出来的一种假想的古代语言。最早有系统提出这个假设的是荷兰人马库斯·冯·鲍霍恩Marcus Zuerius von Boxhorn(1612—1653)。

1647年,鲍霍恩提出梵语、波斯语言与若干印欧语言似乎存在语法的相似性,并假定他们出自原始的共同语言起源,这种原始语言他称之为西徐亚人语言。在他的假设中,这些起源相同的语言包括梵语、波斯语、荷兰语,阿尔巴尼亚语,希腊语,拉丁语,波斯语,以及德语和斯拉夫语言,还有凯尔特和波罗的海地区的语言。因此,他设想印度和欧洲的语言都起源于同一个原始语系统——这就是古印欧语系。不久,这种纯粹出于猜想和虚构出来的原始印欧语,就被西方主流学术界言之凿凿地断论,成为古典时代的拉丁语,希腊语,梵语和各种欧洲现代语言的始祖了。

鲍霍恩的历史著作之一
何新:从原始印欧语的虚构,到雅利安人种的诡说 - 何新博客管理员 - 何新网易博客
 [Occedunt Plutarchi: quaestiones romanae   Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn,1637]



但是讽刺的是,由于欧洲人对阿拉伯人和犹太人的歧视,鲍霍恩和17—19世纪的欧洲学者却都并不承认波斯语言、印度语言以及安纳托里亚的语言,跟与他们紧邻近的阿拉伯语、希伯来语和突厥语言有任何相似、相通性或者互相影响的关系,他们宁可认为这些亚洲语言与遥远的北欧语系、日耳曼语系更加相近。

19世纪初,德国的弗朗兹·博普主教(Franz Bopp1791——1867),是继鲍霍恩后,系统炮制所谓原始印欧语的一位最著名的学者。博普针对几个主要语言的名词和动词形态进行比较,认为梵文与古代安纳托里亚语言、古希腊语言、拉丁语,波斯语和日耳曼语言有直接的亲缘关系。但是他始终没有提出语音构拟的标准。于是在他身后不断涌现了一批批的欧洲学者,他们继续对印欧语的语音演变,系统地、大规模地进行了一系列可疑的重建。

根据这种重建,欧洲历史学家不仅断言古印度、古波斯人那些黑发、黑眼睛、褐色皮肤的高加索人以及安纳托里亚的地中海人,与远在北欧的金发、多毛的白色人是亲戚,而且被古代的希腊罗马人看做讲鸟语的“蛮族日耳曼民族”,这两个彼此曾经浴血千年、世代为仇敌的民族原来也是直系的亲戚。

这样一来,本身缺乏文明历史的日耳曼蛮族(欧美白人的祖先),就找到了与西亚、埃及、波斯、印度、中国等繁荣的古代文明的血缘历史关系,日耳曼民族的优越性和对于未来全人类建立统治的合法性,也就找到了古代文明起源的支点。

因此,西方人认为19世纪欧洲语言学最重大的成就即是对原始印欧语的虚假构拟。

此后,这种假想语言理论迅速被欧洲人引入、移植到考古学和历史学中,假设和猜想变成了确信无疑的历史。印欧语的假设,当今已经成为西方主流历史学对世界历史、古代文明起源和西方文明起源的最根本的支柱理论。

所谓的雅利安人,据说是古代伊朗语族民族中的一支,后来演变为伊朗语族民族的一种宽泛的代称。但是必须指出,这种说法没有任何史书或者史料支持。
西方人宣称:雅利安人分三支,东支进入新疆,就是吐火罗,大月氏,南支进入印度,事实上是进入了两次,一次是上古,一次是贵霜王朝。西支进入了两河流域,就是后来建立大名鼎鼎的波斯帝国的那些伊朗语部落的直系祖先。因此雅利安人包括了建立波斯帝国的波斯人,埃兰人,米底人;印度的高种姓白人,中国西部的吐火罗人,大月氏人,中亚的粟特人,古代中亚的花剌子模人(契丹王朝),阿兰人(也就是《汉书》中大名鼎鼎的的奄蔡人或者奥赛梯人)。

因此,通过这种虚构的古代印欧语,雅利安不仅被认为是现时欧洲主要语系白种人诸语系统的共同祖先,而且是最古老的亚洲文明创造者——小亚细亚、波斯、印度、古代希腊和罗马人的原始语言,甚至也是中国早期王朝夏朝和商朝的原始语言。换句话说,人类早期文明——特别是青铜文明和铁器文明,都被西方人认为是印欧语系的古老民族创造的,也就是欧洲民族——尤其是日耳曼民族的祖先创造的。

但是实际上,原始印欧语的存在,从来没有得到任何古代史料或者其他资料的直接证实。尽管如此,在没有任何可信证据的猜想下,欧洲人在19世纪仍然勇敢地将所谓的原始印欧语的基本的发音和词汇,通过所谓比较语言学的比照法系统重构了出来。

从17世纪至18世纪末,印欧语系的概念逐渐成型。据说,现代印欧语的很多词都是从这些“原始词”经过有规律的语音变化发展而来(比如格林定律)。

尽管没有任何可信的实际语言证据,但是西方语言学界和历史学界却毫无困难地复原建构了这种统一的原始印欧语言,并且声称大约有439种语言和方言可以归入印欧语系统,根据2009年的民族语言估计,其中大约有一半( 221)属于印度雅利安支系。 因此,它包括欧洲的大部分目前的主要语言,伊朗高原和印度次大陆以及古代的安纳托利亚语言。
   
鲍霍恩说所有的印欧语都是屈折语,不过很多现代印欧语(包括近代英语),都根本不存在明显的屈折变化。一些学者认为,高加索语系和印欧语系是最近的近亲,尤其是在格鲁吉亚和土耳其使用的西北高加索语言。虽然列出一些事实证据,但这种假设始终没有得到广泛的认同。

【西方系统伪造的资料】关于雅利安—印欧语族各亚组的十个主要分支谱系:
The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, given in the chronological order of their earliest surviving written attestations:

Anatolian (Asia Minor), the earliest attested branch. Isolated terms in Luwian/Hittite mentioned in Semitic Old Assyrian texts from the 20th and 19th centuries BC, Hittite texts from about 1650 BC;[12][13] extinct by Late Antiquity.
Hellenic. Fragmentary records in Mycenaean Greek from between 1450 and 1350 BC have been found.[14] Homeric texts date to the 8th century BC. (See Proto-Greek, History of Greek.)
Indo-Iranian, circa 1400 BC, descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian (dated to the late 3rd millennium BC).
Indo-Aryan or Indic languages, attested from around 1400 BC in Hittite texts from Asia Minor, showing traces of Indo-Aryan words.[15][16] Epigraphically from the 3rd century BC in the form of Prakrit (Edicts of Ashoka). The Rigveda is assumed to preserve intact records via oral tradition dating from about the mid-2nd millennium BC in the form of Vedic Sanskrit.
Iranian, attested from roughly 1000 BC in the form of Avestan. Epigraphically from 520 BC in the form of Old Persian (Behistun inscription).
Dardic
Nuristani Italic, including Latin and its descendants (the Romance languages), attested from the 7th century BC.
Celtic, descended from Proto-Celtic. Gaulish inscriptions date as early as the 6th century BC; Celtiberian from the 2nd century BC; Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions 5th century AD, earliest inscriptions in Old Welsh from the 8th Century AD.
Germanic (from Proto-Germanic), earliest testimonies in runic inscriptions from around the 2nd century AD, earliest coherent texts in Gothic, 4th century AD. Old English manuscript tradition from about the 8th century AD.
Armenian. Alphabet writings known from the beginning of the 5th century AD.
Tocharian, extant in two dialects (Turfanian and Kuchean), attested from roughly the 6th to the 9th century AD. Marginalized by the Old Turkic Uyghur Khaganate and probably extinct by the 10th century.
Balto-Slavic, believed by most Indo-Europeanists to form a phylogenetic unit, while a minority ascribes similarities to prolonged language contact.
Slavic (from Proto-Slavic), attested from the 9th century AD (possibly earlier; see Slavic runes), earliest texts in Old Church Slavonic.
Baltic, attested from the 14th century AD; for languages attested that late, they retain unusually many archaic features attributed to Proto-Indo-European (PIE).
Albanian, attested from the 14th century AD; Proto-Albanian likely evolved from Paleo-Balkan predecessors.
In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages have existed:

Ill yrian — related to Messapian. Possibly related to Albanian.
Venetic — close to Italic and possibly Continental Celtic.
Liburnian — doubtful affiliation, features shared with Venetic, Illyrian and Indo-Hittite, significant transition of the Pre-Indo-European elements.
Messapian — not conclusively deciphered.
Phrygian — language of the ancient Phrygians, possibly close to Thracian, Armenian, Greek[citation needed].
Paionian — extinct language once spoken north of Macedon.
Thracian — possibly including Dacian.
Dacian — possibly very close to Thracian.
Ancient Macedonian — proposed relationships to Greek, Illyrian, Thracian, and Phrygian.
Ligurian language — possibly close to or part of Celtic.
Sicel - an ancient language spoken by the Sicels (Greek Sikeloi, Latin Siculi), one of the three indigenous (i.e., pre-Greek and pre-Punic) tribes of Sicily. Proposed relationship to Latin or proto-Ill yrian (Pre-Indo-European) at an earlier stage.
Lusitanian — possibly related to (or part of) Celtic, Ligurian, or Italic.

Further information: Language families
Membership of these languages in the Indo-European language family is determined by genetic relationships, meaning that all members are presumed descendants of a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European. Membership in the various branches, groups and subgroups or Indo-European is also genetic, but here the defining factors are shared innovations among various languages, suggesting a common ancestor that split off from other Indo-European groups. For example, what makes the Germanic languages a branch of Indo-European is that much of their structure and phonology can so be stated in rules that apply to all of them. Many of their common features are presumed innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, the source of all the Germanic languages.
Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BC according to the Kurgan hypothesis.
The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of internal reconstruction an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed.

PIE was an inflected language, in which the grammatical relationships between words were signaled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The roots of PIE are basic morphemes carrying a lexical meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of desinences (usually endings), these form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs). The hypothetical Indo-European verb system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of ablaut.


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